⚡ ECON5350 考场速用模板

Banking & Financial Intermediation · 读不懂题也能套用 · 中英双语对照

📄 原题英文 🇨🇳 中文解题思路 ✍️ 填空式答题模板 3套作业 12题
HW1

流动性变换与银行挤兑 — Diamond-Dybvig 模型

Lecture 1 · I部分: π₁=π₂=0.5, R=2, γ=2, l=0.5 · II部分: γ=1, l=0.4, 200人

I.1
S3状态最优 x(S3) — 三段分类
分段最优化 · FOC一阶条件 · γ=2时 u'(c)=c⁻²
📄 原题(Homework1.pdf)
I. Refer to page 9, Lecture 1 (slides). Let π₁=π₂=0.5, R=2, γ=2, l=0.5. 1. What is the optimal x(S3) given 0 < I < 1? (Hint: If x > 0 then y = 0. If y > 0 then x = 0.)
🇨🇳 题目含义 & 解题思路

题目问什么:S3状态(联盟里一个type-1+一个type-2),最优清算量x是多少?

S3消费公式:c₁ = 2(1−I) − y + 0.5x

c₂ = 4I − 2x + y

关键:x和y互斥(Hint已给),分情况A(y>0,x=0)和情况B(x>0,y=0)

γ=2时:u(c) = −c⁻¹,u'(c) = c⁻²

✍️ 答题模板
开场写法:
Given γ=2: u(c)=-c⁻¹, u'(c)=c⁻². State S3: one type-1, one type-2. c₁=2(1-I)-y+0.5x, c₂=4I-2x+y By the hint: Case A (y>0,x=0) or Case B (x>0,y=0).
1
情况A:x=0,对y求FOC
c₁=2(1-I)-y, c₂=4I+y FOC: -u'(c₁)+u'(c₂)=0 ⇒ c₁=c₂ ⇒ y*=1-3I (valid: I<1/3)
2
情况B:y=0,对x求FOC
c₁=2-2I+0.5x, c₂=4I-2x FOC: 0.5·u'(c₁) = 2·u'(c₂) 0.5/c₁² = 2/c₂² ⇒ c₂=2c₁ 4I-2x = 2(2-2I+0.5x) ⇒ x*=(8I-4)/3 (valid: I>1/2)
3
汇总三段答案
Optimal x(S3):
• 0<I<1/3: x*=0, y*=1-3I
• 1/3≤I≤1/2: x*=0, y*=0
• 1/2<I<1: x*=(8I-4)/3, y*=0
I.2
两代理联盟最优投资 I* ≈ 0.393
分段目标函数 · 对I求导=0 · 验证区间
📄 原题
2. What is the optimal I for the two-agent coalition? (Use the result from 1.)
🇨🇳 解题思路

题目问什么:联盟在date-0选多少I最优

三状态概率:P(S1)=P(S2)=0.25,P(S3)=0.5

步骤:聚焦区间[1/3,1/2](此时S3的x=y=0)写目标函数,对I微分令=0,数值解I*≈0.393,验证在区间内

✍️ 答题模板
1
写出S1, S2消费
S1: c₁(S1)=1-0.5I (each) S2: c₂(S2)=1+I (each)
2
区间[1/3,1/2],S3时x=y=0
S3: c₁(S3)=2(1-I), c₂(S3)=4I Objective (with u=ln): g(I)=0.5ln(1-0.5I)+0.5ln(1+I)+0.5ln(2-2I)+0.5ln(4I) g'(I)= -0.25/(1-0.5I) + 0.5/(1+I) - 1/(2-2I) + 0.5/I = 0 Numerical solution: I*≈0.393
3
验证并给出答案
I* ≈ 0.393 ∈ [1/3, 1/2] ✓
At I*: S3 has x*=y*=0 (consistent with assumption)
II.1
金融市场均衡:c₁=1,c₂=2
pR=1均衡条件 · 市场出清
📄 原题
II. 200 agents, γ=1 (u=lnc), π₁=π₂=0.5, R=2, l=0.4. 1. Find the consumption of a type-1 person at date 1 and a type-2 person in equilibrium on the financial market.
🇨🇳 解题思路

题目问什么:date-1金融市场均衡中各类型消费多少

核心:均衡债券价格满足 pR=1(无套利),p=0.5

通用结论:c₁=1,c₂=R(不依赖l)

✍️ 答题模板
1
证明均衡时pR=1
If pR>1: type-2 won't hold bonds → no supply. Contradiction. If pR<1: type-1 prefers liquidating → no demand. Contradiction. ∴ pR=1 ⇒ p=1/R=0.5.
2
市场出清求I
Bond market clearing: π₁RI = π₂(1-I)/p 0.5×2I = 0.5×(1-I)/0.5 ⇒ I*=0.5
3
计算消费
c₁=(1-I)+p×RI=0.5+0.5×2×0.5=1 c₂=RI+(1-I)/p=1+0.5/0.5=2
c₁=1, c₂=2(通用结论:市场均衡 c₁=1, c₂=R)
II.2
需求存款合同:Nash均衡验证 + 银行illiquid
均衡验证 · 负债200 > 资产140
📄 原题
2. Bank offers: c₁=1 at date 1, c₂=2 at date 2. First-come first-served. (2.1) Verify "type-i withdraws at date-i" is a Nash equilibrium. (2.2) Show the bank is illiquid: date-1 liability > liquid assets.
🇨🇳 解题思路

(2.1):证明没有人有动机单方面改变——type-1等待无用,type-2提前取只得1<2

(2.2):算全部200人date-1取款时,银行能变现多少 vs 需付多少

关键数字:l=0.4 → 资产=100+40=140,负债=200

✍️ 答题模板
Part (2.1)
Bank's portfolio: savings=100, investment=100. Given: type-i withdraws at date-i. Type-1 at date 1: gets c₁=1. Deviation (wait to date 2): type-1 doesn't value date-2 consumption → no gain. ✓ Type-2 at date 2: gets c₂=2. Deviation (withdraw at date 1): gets at most c₁=1<2. ✓ ∴ Nash equilibrium verified. ✓
Part (2.2)
Date-1 total liability (all 200 withdraw): 200 × c₁ = 200 × 1 = 200 Date-1 liquid assets: Savings: 100 Liquidated: 100 × l = 100 × 0.4 = 40 Total: 140
140 < 200 ⇒ The bank is illiquid. ✓
Shortfall = 60. In a bank run, the last 60 depositors receive 0.
HW2

委托监督 + 代价核查合同 + 产权理论

Lecture 2 (Diamond委托监督) + Lecture 4 (Townsend CSV + Hart-Moore产权)

I
正态分布下 Eq(3) 的显式积分表达
E[min{Z̃ₙ, 1+rₐ}] = 1+r · 正态分布pdf
📄 原题(Homework2.pdf)
I. Refer to page 14, Lecture 2 (slides). Suppose ỹ follows a normal distribution. Find the explicit expression for Eq (3). [Eq(3)]: E[min{Z̃ₙ, 1+rₐ}] = 1+r where Z̃ₙ = (ỹ₁+...+ỹₙ)/n - k
🇨🇳 解题思路

题目问什么:把E[min{Z, c}]写成正态分布下的显式积分

核心技巧:min{Z,c} = Z·1(Z<c) + c·1(Z≥c),拆成两段积分

Z̃ₙ的分布:ỹ~N(θ, σ²) ⇒ Z̃ₙ~N(θ−k, σ²/n)

✍️ 答题模板
1
写出Z̃ₙ的分布
Suppose ỹᵢ ~ N(θ, σ²) i.i.d. Z̃ₙ = (ỹ₁+...+ỹₙ)/n - k ~ N(θ-k, σ²/n) Let f(z) = pdf of N(θ-k, σ²/n): f(z) = 1/√(2πσ²/n) · exp[-(z-(θ-k))²/(2σ²/n)]
2
拆分min期望
E[min{Z̃ₙ, 1+rₐ}] = ∫_{-∞}^{1+rₐ} z · f(z) dz + (1+rₐ) · ∫_{1+rₐ}^{∞} f(z) dz
3
写出完整显式表达(即为答案)
E[min{Z̃ₙ, 1+rₐ}] = ∫_{-∞}^{1+rₐ} z/√(2πσ²/n) · exp[-(z-(θ-k))²/(2σ²/n)] dz + (1+rₐ) · ∫_{1+rₐ}^{∞} 1/√(2πσ²/n) · exp[-(z-(θ-k))²/(2σ²/n)] dz = 1+r
This is the explicit expression. ✓
As n→∞: Z̃ₙ→θ-k (deterministic), Pr(Z<1+rₐ)→0, audit cost→0.
II
代价核查合同:4个子题的IC与效率判断
Y={0..5} · Lemma 1 IC检验 · Lemma 2 效率检验
📄 原题
II. Suppose Y={0,1,2,3,4,5}, uniform distribution. 1. A={0,2,4}, R(1)=R(3)=1, R(5)=3, R(0)=R(2)=R(4)=0. Is this contract IC? Efficient? 2. A={0,1,3}, R(2)=R(4)=R(5)=2, R(0)=R(1)=R(3)=0. Is this contract IC? Efficient? 3. Proposed: A={0,1,3}, R(2)=R(4)=R(5)=3, R(0)=R(1)=R(3)=0. Is this a valid contract? 4. A={0,1,2}, R(3)=R(4)=R(5)=3, R(0)=R(1)=R(2)=0. Is this contract IC? Efficient?
🇨🇳 解题思路(两个Lemma,必须背住)

Lemma 1 — IC判断:合同IC ⇔ Y\A(非审计集)上R(x)=常数R,且A(审计集)上R(x)≤R

Lemma 2 — Efficient判断(先满足IC才能谈efficient):

  ① A={0,1,...,x̅}(低产出连续集合)

  ② R = x̅+1

  ③ R(x)=x for all x∈A(审计时没收全部)

可行性约束:0 ≤ R(x) ≤ x 对所有x

✍️ 答题模板
速查表(先记住这个)
检查项IC要求Efficient额外要求
Y\A上R(x)为常数✓必须
A上R(x)≤常数✓必须
A={0,...,x̅}连续低产出不要求✓必须
R=x̅+1不要求✓必须
R(x)=x for x∈A不要求✓必须
1
题1:A={0,2,4},Y\A={1,3,5}
Y\A上:R(1)=1, R(3)=1, R(5)=3 R(1)≠R(5) ⇒ R(.) 在Y\A上不是常数 ⇒ 违反Lemma 1
❌ Non-IC ⇒ automatically non-efficient
2
题2:A={0,1,3},Y\A={2,4,5}
Y\A上:R(2)=R(4)=R(5)=2 ⇒ 常数R=2 ✓ A上:R(0)=R(1)=R(3)=0 ≤ 2 ✓ ⇒ IC ✓ Efficient check: A={0,1,3} ≠ {0,1,2,...} (not consecutive) ✘
✓ IC,❌ Non-efficient(A跳过了2,不是连续低产出集)
3
题3:feasibility check(可行性检查)
Feasibility requires: 0 ≤ R(x) ≤ x for all x For x=2 ∈ Y\A: R(2)=3 > 2=x ⇒ infeasible!
❌ Invalid contract(R(2)=3>x=2,违反可行性R(x)≤x)
4
题4:A={0,1,2},Y\A={3,4,5}
Y\A上:R(3)=R(4)=R(5)=3 ⇒ 常数R=3 ✓ A上:R(0)=R(1)=R(2)=0 ≤ 3 ✓ ⇒ IC ✓ Efficient check: A={0,1,2}={0,...,2} ✓ | R=2+1=3 ✓ R(x)=x for x∈A? R(1)=0≠1, R(2)=0≠2 ✘
✓ IC,❌ Non-efficient(R(1)和R(2)应等于x本身,即没收全部产出)
III
验证Claim 2 和 Claim 3 — 反证法构造更优合同
反证法 · 构造C' · 标准债务合同推导
📄 原题
III. Refer to page 14, Lecture4Slides. 1. Verify Claim 2. (Hint: construct another contract) 2. Verify Claim 3. (Hint: construct another contract) [Background] Y={0,...,K}, C is IC and efficient, A={0,...,x̅} (from Claim 1). Claim 2: R = x̅+1 Claim 3: R(x)=x for all x ∈ A
🇨🇳 解题思路

反证法三步走(必须背住模板):

  ① 假设命题不成立

  ② 构造新合同C'(仅提高某处还款,保持A'=A)

  ③ 验证C'可行且IC,但期望还款更高 ⇒ C不efficient ⇒ 矛盾

✍️ 答题模板
Claim 2:R = x̅+1
1
排除 R > x̅+1
If R > x̅+1: for x=x̅+1 ∈ Y\A, R(x̅+1)=R > x̅+1=x ⇒ violates feasibility 0≤R(x)≤x. ∴ R ≤ x̅+1.
2
排除 R < x̅+1(构造C'反证)
Assume R < x̅+1. Construct C': A' = A, R'(x)=R(x) for x∈A', R'(x)=R+1 for x∈Y\A' C' feasible: x∈Y\A' ⇒ x≥x̅+1 > R ⇒ R+1≤x̅+1≤x ✓ C' IC: Y\A' constant R+1 ✓; A': R'(x)=R(x)≤R<R+1 ✓ But: A'=A ⇒ same audit cost; higher repayment in Y\A' ⇒ C' dominates C ⇒ C not efficient. Contradiction!
∴ R = x̅+1 ✓
Claim 3:R(x)=x for x∈A
3
构造C'反证
Assume ∃z∈A with R(z)<z. Construct C': A'=A; R'(z)=z; R'(x)=R(x) for x≠z C' feasible: R'(z)=z≤z ✓ C' IC: R'=R=x̅+1; z∈A: R'(z)=z≤x̅<x̅+1 ✓ But: A'=A ⇒ same audit cost; R'(z)=z>R(z) ⇒ C' has higher expected repayment ⇒ C not efficient. Contradiction!
∴ R(x)=x for all x∈A ✓
IV
产权理论:Nash议价价格 + 最优所有权结构
三种所有权 · Nash bargaining · 一阶条件求i*
📄 原题
IV. Refer to property rights model in Note 4. 1. What is p under no integration? Type-1? Type-2 integration? 2. R(i₁)=5√i₁, R(i₁;a₁,a₂)=3√i₁, R(i₁;a₁)=2√i₁, R(i₁;∅)=√i₁. c(i₂)=K-5√i₂, c(i₂;a₁,a₂)=K-3√i₂, c(i₂;a₁)=K-2√i₂, c(i₂;∅)=K-√i₂. Find optimal ownership structure (welfare = R(i₁)-i₁-c(i₂)-i₂).
🇨🇳 解题思路

三种所有权结构 & 对应威胁点:

• No integration:M1有a₁,M2有a₂(各自威胁点=用自己资产的收益)

• Type-1 integration:M1有a₁+a₂,M2有∅(M2威胁点=R(i₁;∅)和c(i₂;∅))

• Type-2 integration:M1有∅,M2有a₁+a₂(M1威胁点最弱)

Nash议价:各方盈余各50%,由此求p;企业对自己的投资求FOC

✍️ 答题模板
1
三种结构下的Nash议价价格p公式
No integration: p = p̅ + 0.5[R(i₁)-R(i₁;a₁)] + 0.5[c(i₂)-c(i₂;a₂)] ...(1) Type-1 integration (M1 owns all): p = p̅ + 0.5[R(i₁)-R(i₁;a₁,a₂)] + 0.5[c(i₂)-c(i₂;∅)] ...(2) Type-2 integration (M2 owns all): p = p̅ + 0.5[R(i₁)-R(i₁;∅)] + 0.5[c(i₂)-c(i₂;a₁,a₂)] ...(3)
2
无整合下M1的FOC(代入具体函数)
M1 maximizes: R(i₁)-p-i₁ = 0.5R(i₁)+0.5R(i₁;a₁)-i₁-(const) FOC: 0.5R'(i₁)+0.5R'(i₁;a₁) = 1 R'(i₁)=5/(2√i₁), R'(i₁;a₁)=2/(2√i₁)=1/√i₁ 0.5[5/(2√i₁) + 1/√i₁] = 1 0.5 × 7/(2√i₁) = 1 ⇒ √i₁ = 7/4 ⇒ i₁* = 49/16
3
由对称性:i₂*=49/16;No integration最优
By symmetry of parameters: i₂*=49/16 under no integration.
No integration is optimal: both parties retain their own asset ⇒ symmetric investment incentives ⇒ highest welfare.
(Note: The question says "I would stop here" — only compute no integration.)
HW3

信号理论(Leland-Pyle)+ 银行监督(Holmstrom-Tirole)

Lecture 3 (分离均衡) + Lecture 5 (HT模型:道德风险、信贷约束、信贷紧缩)

I
分离均衡验证:type-2不模仿type-1(最优均衡自动满足)
IC₂验证 · CARA+正态 · α≥0恒成立
📄 原题(Homework3.pdf)
I. Refer to Lecture 3 (slides). In signaling through self-financing, we do not verify that a type-2 entrepreneur does not gain by following the type-1 entrepreneur's strategy (holding zero ownership). Verify that this is true at the best separating equilibrium.
🇨🇳 解题思路

题目问什么:验证在最优分离均衡中,type-2不会选择模仿type-1(即不选α=0卖出项目)

模型背景:CARA效用 u=-e^{-ρc},项目收益 r̃~N(θ, σ²)

步骤:①写出type-2模仿type-1的效用 ②写出type-2保持α的效用 ③比较两者 ④代入最优均衡条件化简

✍️ 答题模板
1
写出type-2的两种选择效用
Type-2 holds α shares (signals quality): Certainty equivalent = w₀+θ₂ - 0.5ρα²σ² (CARA+normal: CE of αr̃+const = αθ₂+const - 0.5ρα²σ²) Type-2 mimics type-1 (α=0, sells at price p=θ₁): Certainty equivalent = w₀+θ₁
2
type-2不模仿的条件(*)
Type-2 prefers to signal iff: w₀+θ₂-0.5ρα²σ² ≥ w₀+θ₁ ⇔ θ₂-θ₁ ≥ 0.5ρα²σ² ...... (*)
3
在最优分离均衡中验证(*)自动成立
Best separating eq: type-1's IC binds (minimum α): α²/(1-α) = 2(θ₂-θ₁)/(ρσ²) ⇒ θ₂-θ₁ = 0.5ρσ² · α²/(1-α) ...(3) Substitute (3) into (*): need to verify 0.5ρσ² · α²/(1-α) ≥ 0.5ρα²σ² ⇔ 1/(1-α) ≥ 1 ⇔ α ≥ 0 ✓ (always true since α∈[0,1])
Condition (*) is automatically satisfied at the best separating equilibrium. ✓
type-2不会模仿type-1:因为信号成本0.5ρα²σ² ≤ θ₂-θ₁(质量优势大于信号成本)
II.1
HT:银行不监督就等于普通投资者
道德风险 · 监督价值 · B不变时银行无特殊之处
📄 原题
II. Refer to LectureSlides5. 1. Verify that for banks to make a difference, they must monitor firms.
🇨🇳 解题思路

题目问什么:如果银行贷款但不监督,它能比投资者多贷多少?答案是:一样多,所以必须监督才有意义

步骤:假设银行不监督 → 银行+投资者的合并参与约束 → 企业IC约束(B未降低)→ 得到总融资上限=只有投资者时的上限

✍️ 答题模板
1
假设银行贷Iₑ但不监督,合并参与约束
Bank lends Iₑ (no monitoring): p℄Rₑ ≥ Iₑ(1+r) Investor lends Iᵘ: p℄Rᵘ ≥ Iᵘ(1+r) Sum: p℄(Rᵘ+Rₑ) ≥ (Iᵘ+Iₑ)(1+r) ⇔ p℄R̂ ≥ Î(1+r) ...(4)
2
企业IC(B不变,银行未监督)
Firm's IC (good vs bad technology, no monitoring): p℄(y-R̂) ≥ pℒ(y-R̂)+B ⇔ R̂ ≤ y - B/Δp ...(5) From (4)+(5): Î ≤ p℄(y-B/Δp)/(1+r) This is IDENTICAL to the upper bound with investors only!
3
If bank does not monitor: total borrowing limit = investors-only limit.
Bank adds no extra financing capacity ⇒ banks must monitor to make a difference. ✓
(监督后B→b,IC松弛,能借更多)
II.2
HT:投资者利率1+r < 银行利率β → 企业最大化向投资者借
竞争压低利率 · 监督成本使β>1+r · 三步证明
📄 原题
2. Verify that competition among investors drives their rate below banks' rate and, hence the firm borrows as much as possible from investors.
🇨🇳 解题思路

三步走:

Step 1:投资者竞争 ⇒ p℄Rᵘ/Iᵘ = 1+r(利润被竞争抹平)

Step 2:银行监督成本C ⇒ p℄Rₑ/Iₑ = β > 1+r

Step 3:比较两种融资结构 ⇒ 企业偏好多借投资者

✍️ 答题模板
1
Step 1:竞争 ⇒ 投资者零利润
Competition among investors: if p℄Rᵘ > Iᵘ(1+r), another investor offers lower rate, steals the deal. In equilibrium: p℄Rᵘ = Iᵘ(1+r) ...(6)
2
Step 2:监督成本使β>1+r
Bank monitors at cost C. Bank's participation: p℄Rₑ ≥ Iₑ(1+r)+C > Iₑ(1+r) Define β=p℄Rₑ/Iₑ ⇒ β > 1+r = p℄Rᵘ/Iᵘ ...(7)
3
Step 3:企业偏好多借投资者
Fix total Iᵘ+Iₑ=const. Shift ε from bank to investor: Iᵘ→Iᵘ+ε, Iₑ→Iₑ-ε Firm's expected payoff change: Δ = -ε(1+r) + εβ = ε(β-(1+r)) > 0 Firm gains by borrowing more from investors. ⇒ Firm maximizes Iᵘ (borrows as much as possible from investors). ✓
Investors' rate 1+r < banks' rate β ⇒ firm always prefers more investor funding. ✓
II.3
HT:均衡β唯一存在(中间值定理)
Iₑ(β)单调递减 · 两端极限 · 中间值定理
📄 原题
3. Verify that because Iₑ(β) is decreasing in β, lim_{β→0} Iₑ(β)=∞, and lim_{β→∞} Iₑ(β)=0, there is a unique β solving equation (9). [Eq(9)]: Kₑ = [G(Å(r)) - G(A(r,β))] · Iₑ(β) where Iₑ(β) = p℄C/(βΔp)
🇨🇳 解题思路

题目问什么:证明均衡β*存在且唯一,用中间值定理

步骤:① 验证Iₑ(β)=p℄C/(βΔp)的单调性和极限 ② 分析等式右侧D(β)的行为 ③ D连续+D(0+)=+∞+D(∞)=0 ⇒ 中间值定理给出唯一解

✍️ 答题模板
1
验证Iₑ(β)=p℄C/(βΔp)的性质
Iₑ(β) = p℄C/(βΔp) = const/β dIₑ/dβ = -p℄C/(β²Δp) < 0 ✓ (strictly decreasing) lim_{β→0+} Iₑ(β) = +∞ ✓ lim_{β→∞} Iₑ(β) = 0 ✓
2
分析右侧D(β)=[G(Å)-G(A(r,β))]·Iₑ(β)
As β→0+: Iₑ(β)→∞ and G(Å)-G(A(r,β))>0 ⇒ D(β)→∞ As β→∞: Iₑ(β)→0 ⇒ D(β)→0 D(β) is continuous and strictly decreasing in β.
3
中间值定理
D is continuous, D(0+)=+∞ > Kₑ > 0 = D(∞). By the Intermediate Value Theorem: ∃ unique β* such that D(β*)=Kₑ. ✓
The equilibrium β* exists and is unique. ✓
Kₑ↓ ⇒ β*↑ ⇒ fewer firms can borrow from banks ⇒ credit crunch (信贷紧缩)
II.4
HT:A > Å(r)时企业不会向银行借款
监督成本C使企业少赚 · 两步比较收益
📄 原题
4. Verify that if I > A > Å(r), then it is impossible that the firm borrows from a bank and the bank monitors the firm.
🇨🇳 解题思路

题目问什么:当A≥Å(r)时,只靠投资者就够融资,为什么此时企业不会向银行借?

关键:Å(r)=I-p℄[y-B/Δp]/(1+r),即A≥Å(r)意味着只靠投资者就可以凑够I

步骤:比较"纯投资者融资"和"含银行监督融资"的企业期望收益,后者少C

✍️ 答题模板
1
基准:只向投资者借
If A ≥ Å(r): firm borrows only from investors, Iᵘ=I-A. By competition: p℄Rᵘ=(I-A)(1+r). Firm's payoff (baseline) = p℄y - (I-A)(1+r)
2
若向银行借Iₑ>0(银行监督),企业收益更低
With bank: Iᵘ=I-A-Iₑ, bank participation: p℄Rₑ≥Iₑ(1+r)+C Firm's payoff ≤ p℄y - (I-A-Iₑ)(1+r) - [Iₑ(1+r)+C] = p℄y - (I-A)(1+r) - C = (baseline) - C < baseline
Borrowing from bank costs the firm C (monitoring cost). ⇒ Firm won't borrow from bank when A ≥ Å(r). ✓
📋 四类企业融资状态表(必记)
企业自有资本A融资方式
A ≥ I自有资本,无需融资
Å(r) ≤ A < I只向投资者借(Iᵘ=I-A)
A(r,β) ≤ A < Å(r)投资者+银行(需监督,支付β利率)
A < A(r,β)无法融资(credit rationing)

📐 关键公式速查(考场翻这里)

DD模型 — 市场均衡

均衡条件: pR=1 ⇒ p=1/R 结论: c₁=1, c₂=R(通用,不依赖l) 第一最优: u'(c₁*)=R·u'(c₂*)

DD模型 — 银行挤兑(l=0.4)

储蓄=100, 清算=100×0.4=40 可变现=140 < 负债=200 差额60,最后60人颗粒无收

S3联盟(R=2,l=0.5,γ=2)

I<1/3: x*=0, y*=1-3I 1/3≤I≤1/2: x*=0, y*=0 I>1/2: x*=(8I-4)/3, y*=0

IC判断 (Lemma 1)

IC ⇔ R(.)=常数R on Y\A R(x)≤R on A 先看Y\A,不恒定⇒直接非IC

Efficient判断 (Lemma 2)

IC + A={0,...,x̅} + R=x̅+1 + R(x)=x for x∈A 三条同时满足才efficient

反证法构造C'(通用模板)

Claim 2: 假设R<x̅+1,令R'=R+1 on Y\A Claim 3: 假设R(z)<z,令R'(z)=z 验证C'可行+IC+期望还款更高⇒矛盾

Nash议价价格p(无整合)

p=p̅+0.5[R(i₁)-R(i₁;a₁)] +0.5[c(i₂)-c(i₂;a₂)] FOC: 0.5R'(i₁)+0.5R'(i₁;a₁)=1

信号理论(Leland-Pyle)

IC₁(type-1不模仿): α²/(1-α)≥2(θ₂-θ₁)/(ρσ²) IC₂(type-2不模仿): θ₂-θ₁≥0.5ρα²σ² 最优均衡: IC₁取等,IC₂自动满足(α≥0)

HT模型融资门槛

Å(r)=I-p℄[y-B/Δp]/(1+r) Iₑ(β)=p℄C/(βΔp)(单家向银行借) β>1+r(银行利率高于投资者)

HT三步证明口诀

Step 1: 竞争⇒p℄Rᵘ=Iᵘ(1+r)(零利润) Step 2: 监督成本C⇒β=(p℄Rₑ/Iₑ)>1+r Step 3: 企业多借投资者收益增加ε(β-1-r)>0